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Biologists historically defined subspecies as populations with distinct trait clusters and genetic differentiation. Recent research supports that human populations meet several scientific criteria for subspecies. For example, one 2009 analysis noted that *Homo sapiens* has high levels of morphological diversity, genetic heterozygosity, and between-group genetic differentiation (F<sub>ST</sub>) compared to many animal species that are acknowledged to be polytypic (having subspecies).{{footnote}}Anonymous, "Race is biologically non-existent — I’m not making it up," *Tumblr Blog*, 2014. Available at: [[https://someofmybestfriendsarewhite.tumblr.com/post/80846397928/race-is-biologically-non-existent-im-not-making]]{{/footnote}} In other words, the extent of differences among human groups is as large as or larger than that seen between subspecies in other species.{{footnote}}Anonymous, "Race is biologically non-existent — I’m not making it up," *Tumblr Blog*, 2014. Available at: [[https://someofmybestfriendsarewhite.tumblr.com/post/80846397928/race-is-biologically-non-existent-im-not-making]]{{/footnote}} |
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+Historically, physical anthropologists identified numerous human races based on clusters of inherited physical traits. Joseph Deniker (1900) and Hans F. K. Günther (1927), for instance, catalogued various races (or “racial elements”) in Europe and worldwide, distinguished by traits like skull shape, stature, facial form, hair texture, and pigmentation.{{footnote}}Hans F. K. Günther, *The Racial Elements of European History*, 1927. Available at: [[https://archive.org/stream/racialelementsof035485mbp/racialelementsof035485mbp_djvu.txt#:~:text=one%20or%20the%20other%20race,over%20the%20nape%20of%20the]]{{/footnote}} Such early classifications recognized, for example, a “Nordic race” in Northwest Europe – characterized by *tall stature, long heads (dolichocephalic), narrow faces, and light pigmentation* – versus a “Dinaric race” in the central European Alps with *shorter, broad skulls (brachycephalic) and broader faces*.{{footnote}}Hans F. K. Günther, *The Racial Elements of European History*, 1927. Available at: [[https://archive.org/stream/racialelementsof035485mbp/racialelementsof035485mbp_djvu.txt#:~:text=one%20or%20the%20other%20race,over%20the%20nape%20of%20the]]{{/footnote}} The fact that even pre-genetic era scientists could reliably identify geographically distinct human types underscores that human variation is non-random and structured, consistent with the existence of races. |
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== Neanderthal Admixture and Its Implications for Human Racial Classification == |
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The classification of Neanderthals as a separate species or subspecies from modern humans (*Homo sapiens*) has long been a subject of scientific debate. Traditionally, Neanderthals were considered a distinct species (*Homo neanderthalensis*) based on morphological differences in skeletal remains. These include features such as a more robust build, larger cranial capacity, prominent brow ridges, and a distinct facial structure. However, advances in paleogenetics and ancient DNA analysis have complicated this clear-cut distinction. |
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Thus, if the ability to interbreed and genetic continuity is key to species or subspecies designation, the absorption of Neanderthal alleles into modern humans reflects a collapse of their distinct classification. Similarly, modern races, while showing differences, exist within one species with partial but incomplete reproductive isolation. |
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-=== Summary === |
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* Neanderthals exhibit notable but overlapping morphological differences from modern humans. |
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* Genetic evidence confirms interbreeding and gene flow between Neanderthals and modern humans. |
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* This admixture weakens the species boundary, supporting subspecies or population-level classification. |
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* Modern human racial groups similarly show partial isolation with distinct allele frequencies, but no fully unique alleles. |
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* The Neanderthal case underscores the complexities in classifying biological groups and supports viewing human races as meaningful, though not absolute, biological clusters. |
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-Historically, physical anthropologists identified numerous human races based on clusters of inherited physical traits. Joseph Deniker (1900) and Hans F. K. Günther (1927), for instance, catalogued various races (or “racial elements”) in Europe and worldwide, distinguished by traits like skull shape, stature, facial form, hair texture, and pigmentation.{{footnote}}Hans F. K. Günther, *The Racial Elements of European History*, 1927. Available at: [[https://archive.org/stream/racialelementsof035485mbp/racialelementsof035485mbp_djvu.txt#:~:text=one%20or%20the%20other%20race,over%20the%20nape%20of%20the]]{{/footnote}} Such early classifications recognized, for example, a “Nordic race” in Northwest Europe – characterized by *tall stature, long heads (dolichocephalic), narrow faces, and light pigmentation* – versus a “Dinaric race” in the central European Alps with *shorter, broad skulls (brachycephalic) and broader faces*.{{footnote}}Hans F. K. Günther, *The Racial Elements of European History*, 1927. Available at: [[https://archive.org/stream/racialelementsof035485mbp/racialelementsof035485mbp_djvu.txt#:~:text=one%20or%20the%20other%20race,over%20the%20nape%20of%20the]]{{/footnote}} The fact that even pre-genetic era scientists could reliably identify geographically distinct human types underscores that human variation is non-random and structured, consistent with the existence of races. |
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== Genetic Evidence for Human Races == |
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With the advent of genetics, researchers can directly examine human population structure. Modern genomic studies have repeatedly found that human genetic variation is not a homogeneous blur, but rather clusters into discernible groups corresponding to traditional racial categories and geographic ancestry.{{footnote}}Jerry Coyne, "Once again: are 'races' social constructs without biological meaning?" *Why Evolution Is True* blog, July 19, 2022. Available at: [[https://whyevolutionistrue.com/2022/07/19/once-again-are-races-social-constructs-without-scientific-or-biological-meaning/#:~:text=,And%20Me%20stay%20in%20business]]{{/footnote}} Notably, in a landmark analysis of over 3,600 individuals from around the world, genetic clustering algorithms could sort people into distinct groups (clusters) that correspond almost perfectly to self-identified race/ethnicity. In that study, *over 99%* of individuals were genetically classified into the same group as their self-declared race (only 5 out of 3,636 were exceptions). Such findings directly refute the notion that race is purely arbitrary; instead, they show that an individual’s continental ancestry can be determined from DNA with over 99% accuracy in these samples.{{footnote}}Tang, Hua et al. *“Genetic structure, self-identified race/ethnicity, and confounding in case-control association studies.”* American Journal of Human Genetics 76(2): 268–275 (2005) – (Found that genetic clusters correspond 99.86% with self-identified race in a US sample). Available at https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002929707625786{{/footnote}} |