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28	28	== Genetic Evidence for Human Races ==
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30		-With the advent of genetics, researchers can directly examine human population structure. Modern genomic studies have repeatedly found that human genetic variation is not a homogeneous blur, but rather clusters into discernible groups corresponding to traditional racial categories and geographic ancestry.{{footnote}}Jerry Coyne, "Once again: are 'races' social constructs without biological meaning?" *Why Evolution Is True* blog, July 19, 2022. Available at: [[https://whyevolutionistrue.com/2022/07/19/once-again-are-races-social-constructs-without-scientific-or-biological-meaning/#:~:text=,And%20Me%20stay%20in%20business]]{{/footnote}} Notably, in a landmark analysis of over 3,600 individuals from around the world, genetic clustering algorithms could sort people into distinct groups (clusters) that correspond almost perfectly to self-identified race/ethnicity. In that study, *over 99%* of individuals were genetically classified into the same group as their self-declared race (only 5 out of 3,636 were exceptions). Such findings directly refute the notion that race is purely arbitrary; instead, they show that an individual’s continental ancestry can be determined from DNA with over 99% accuracy in these samples.{{footnote}}Jerry Coyne, "Once again: are 'races' social constructs without biological meaning?" *Why Evolution Is True* blog, July 19, 2022. Available at: [[https://whyevolutionistrue.com/2022/07/19/once-again-are-races-social-constructs-without-scientific-or-biological-meaning/#:~:text=,And%20Me%20stay%20in%20business]]{{/footnote}}
	30	+With the advent of genetics, researchers can directly examine human population structure. Modern genomic studies have repeatedly found that human genetic variation is not a homogeneous blur, but rather clusters into discernible groups corresponding to traditional racial categories and geographic ancestry.{{footnote}}Jerry Coyne, "Once again: are 'races' social constructs without biological meaning?" *Why Evolution Is True* blog, July 19, 2022. Available at: [[https://whyevolutionistrue.com/2022/07/19/once-again-are-races-social-constructs-without-scientific-or-biological-meaning/#:~:text=,And%20Me%20stay%20in%20business]]{{/footnote}} Notably, in a landmark analysis of over 3,600 individuals from around the world, genetic clustering algorithms could sort people into distinct groups (clusters) that correspond almost perfectly to self-identified race/ethnicity. In that study, *over 99%* of individuals were genetically classified into the same group as their self-declared race (only 5 out of 3,636 were exceptions). Such findings directly refute the notion that race is purely arbitrary; instead, they show that an individual’s continental ancestry can be determined from DNA with over 99% accuracy in these samples.{{footnote}}Tang, Hua et al. *“Genetic structure, self-identified race/ethnicity, and confounding in case-control association studies.”* American Journal of Human Genetics 76(2): 268–275 (2005) – (Found that genetic clusters correspond 99.86% with self-identified race in a US sample). Available at https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002929707625786{{/footnote}}
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32	32	Genetic clusters consistently mirror the major traditional races. If humans are partitioned into, say, five genetic clusters, these turn out to correspond to people of Africa, Europe (and West Asia), East Asia, Oceania, and the Americas, respectively. (Increasing the number of clusters can subdivide groups further; for example, a six-group analysis might separate out a specific population like the Kalash of South Asia as its own cluster.) The point remains that human genetic variation is geographically structured in a roughly hierarchical way, reflecting our evolutionary history of populations expanding and diverging in relative isolation. These genetic groupings correspond closely to classical racial groupings, even if researchers today often use the terms “population” or “ancestry” instead of “race”.
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34	34	One striking genetic finding is that sub-Saharan Africans form the most divergent branch of the human family tree. Worldwide DNA surveys consistently show that *Africans (especially indigenous sub-Saharan groups) have the greatest genetic distance from all other human populations*. This is consistent with the “Out of Africa” model: African lineages are the oldest and most diverse, whereas non-African populations stem from one subset of Africans that migrated out 50–70,000 years ago, acquiring additional differentiation subsequently. After the primary African vs. non-African split, the next major genetic differentiation is often observed between Oceanian (Australo-Melanesian) peoples and the rest of Eurasians. Other continental groups – Europeans, East Asians, Native Americans, etc. – cluster intermediate to those extremes. In essence, humans have a *tree-like genetic structure* with real branches, rather than being a uniform blend.{{footnote}}Jared Taylor, "The Biological Reality of Race," *American Renaissance*, October 1999. Available at: [[https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=If%20we%20return%20to%20the,fascinating%20topic%20for%20another%20day]]{{/footnote}}
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37		-It is true (as often cited) that within-group genetic variation is large: roughly 85% of human genetic variation exists *within* local populations, and only 15% between major races. However, this fact – first highlighted by Richard Lewontin in 1972 – does not mean races are meaningless, and it can be misleading if taken out of context. The key rebuttal is known as “Lewontin’s Fallacy.” Lewontin had calculated variation one gene at a time, finding each gene’s differences small between groups. But later statisticians (such as A. W. F. Edwards) pointed out that while any single gene varies mostly within groups, the correlations among many genes allow nearly perfect classification of individuals into their population of origin. As Edwards noted, *Lewontin’s argument “ignores the fact that most of the information that distinguishes populations is hidden in the correlation structure of the data and not simply in the variation of individual factors.”* When many loci are considered together, distinct genetic signatures emerge for different races. In practical terms, while two individuals from different races may share certain genes or traits, when you look at hundreds or thousands of genetic markers simultaneously, the overall pattern reveals their differing ancestry.{{footnote}}Anonymous, "Race is biologically non-existent — I’m not making it up," *Tumblr Blog*, 2014. Available at: [[https://someofmybestfriendsarewhite.tumblr.com/post/80846397928/race-is-biologically-non-existent-im-not-making#:~:text=An%20argument%20is%20that%20there,it%20is%20fallacious%20because%20it]]{{/footnote}}
	37	+It is true (as often cited) that within-group genetic variation is large: roughly 85% of human genetic variation exists *within* local populations, and only 15% between major races. However, this fact – first highlighted by Richard Lewontin in 1972 – does not mean races are meaningless, and it can be misleading if taken out of context. The key rebuttal is known as “Lewontin’s Fallacy.” Lewontin had calculated variation one gene at a time, finding each gene’s differences small between groups. But later statisticians (such as A. W. F. Edwards){{footnote}}Edwards, A.W\.F. *“Human genetic diversity: Lewontin’s fallacy.”* BioEssays 25: 798–801 (2003) – (Explains why high within-race variation doesn’t negate the ability to classify races by genes; importance of correlation structure). Available at: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/bies.10315{{/footnote}} pointed out that while any single gene varies mostly within groups, the correlations among many genes allow nearly perfect classification of individuals into their population of origin. As Edwards noted, *Lewontin’s argument “ignores the fact that most of the information that distinguishes populations is hidden in the correlation structure of the data and not simply in the variation of individual factors.”* When many loci are considered together, distinct genetic signatures emerge for different races. In practical terms, while two individuals from different races may share certain genes or traits, when you look at hundreds or thousands of genetic markers simultaneously, the overall pattern reveals their differing ancestry.{{footnote}}Anonymous, "Race is biologically non-existent — I’m not making it up," *Tumblr Blog*, 2014. Available at: [[https://someofmybestfriendsarewhite.tumblr.com/post/80846397928/race-is-biologically-non-existent-im-not-making#:~:text=An%20argument%20is%20that%20there,it%20is%20fallacious%20because%20it]]{{/footnote}}
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39	39	Moreover, the level of between-group genetic differentiation humans *do* have (about 10–15% variation partitioned between races) is not biologically trivial. In population genetics, a statistic called F<sub>ST</sub> measures the genetic differentiation among populations. Humans’ inter-group F<sub>ST</sub> values (on the order of 0.1–0.2 between continental groups) are comparable to or greater than those seen between subspecies in many other animals. In fact, one analysis showed humans have *higher* genetic differentiation and heterozygosity than some species that are formally divided into multiple subspecies. For example, many mammal and bird species are split into subspecies for far smaller genetic gaps. Thus, by zoological criteria, it is reasonable to view major human populations as akin to subspecies.{{footnote}}Anonymous, "Race is biologically non-existent — I’m not making it up," *Tumblr Blog*, 2014. Available at: [[https://someofmybestfriendsarewhite.tumblr.com/post/80846397928/race-is-biologically-non-existent-im-not-making#:~:text=of%20the%20framework%20of%20race,of%20potential%20human%20phylogenetic%20species]]{{/footnote}}
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71	71	* *Muscle and Athletics:* There are well-known racial patterns in athletic performance that align with genetic ancestry. East African runners (particularly the Kalenjin tribe of Kenya and related groups in highland Kenya/Ethiopia) dominate world long-distance running, whereas West African-descended athletes excel in sprinting and explosive track events. For example, about 40% of top world-class middle- and long-distance runners have come from the Kalenjin (a Nilotic people who comprise only about 10% of Kenya’s population).{{footnote}}Jared Taylor, "The Biological Reality of Race," *American Renaissance*, October 1999. Available at: [[https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=ancestors%20have%20been%20tending%20cattle,from%20just%20this%20one%20tribe]]{{/footnote}} Their success is often attributed to a mix of genetic, physiological, and cultural factors – including slim body morphology, high-altitude training environment, and perhaps evolutionary history of endurance activities.{{footnote}}Jared Taylor, "The Biological Reality of Race," *American Renaissance*, October 1999. Available at: [[https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=ancestors%20have%20been%20tending%20cattle,from%20just%20this%20one%20tribe]]{{/footnote}} In sprinting, virtually all Olympic 100m finalists for decades have been of West African descent, reflecting genetic predispositions for muscle fiber type and anaerobic power. While social factors play a role in sports, these patterns strongly suggest underlying biological differences in musculature and physiology between populations. Indeed, even within Africa, the contrast of body types is evident: “Elongated” Nilotic Africans (e.g. Kalenjin, Dinka) are exceptionally tall and tend toward endurance, whereas many West African groups have comparatively more musculature and power suited to sprinting and jumping. Such differences illustrate how human populations have specialized via evolution.
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74	74	* Growth and Development: Racial groups differ in rates of growth and maturation. On average, African-descended infants and children develop faster on some motor and physical milestones than European-descended ones. For example, black babies in the U.S. are often born slightly earlier (shorter gestation) and at slightly lower birth weights than white babies, yet they mature more rapidly postnatally.{{footnote}}Jared Taylor, "The Biological Reality of Race," *American Renaissance*, October 1999. Available at: [[https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=Many%20of%20these%20race%20differences,in%20blacks%20than%20in%20whites]]{{/footnote}} Studies (and anecdotal observations) have found that black infants tend to hold their heads up, sit, crawl, and walk a bit earlier than white infants of the same age – a pattern also reported in some African populations.{{footnote}}Jared Taylor, "The Biological Reality of Race," *American Renaissance*, October 1999. Available at: [[https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=Many%20of%20these%20race%20differences,in%20blacks%20than%20in%20whites]]{{/footnote}} One extreme case is the Efe pygmies, among whom babies have been observed to walk as early as 6 months, roughly twice as fast as the typical European infant timeline (12 months).{{footnote}}Jared Taylor, "The Biological Reality of Race," *American Renaissance*, October 1999. Available at: [[https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=On%20the%20subject%20of%20size%2C,quickly%20than%20any%20human%20group]]{{/footnote}} Black children also enter puberty earlier, on average, than whites: in the U.S., African-American girls begin breast development and menstruation about 1–2 years earlier than European-American girls, and similarly boys show earlier genital development.{{footnote}}Jared Taylor, "The Biological Reality of Race," *American Renaissance*, October 1999. Available at: [[https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=Blacks%20have%20more%20lean%20body,years%20sooner%20than%20white%20children]]{{/footnote}} By around age 12, many black youths are biologically more mature (in bone growth and muscle mass) than their white peers.{{footnote}}Jared Taylor, "The Biological Reality of Race," *American Renaissance*, October 1999. Available at: [[https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=Blacks%20have%20more%20lean%20body,years%20sooner%20than%20white%20children]]{{/footnote}} East Asians, in contrast, tend to be slightly later in maturation than Europeans (on average), continuing the pattern of an observed gradient: fast development at one end (Africans) and slowest at the other (East Asians), with Europeans intermediate – a pattern noted by J.P. Rushton and others as part of broader life-history differences. These developmental timing differences have practical implications (for instance, in youth athletics or education) and likely genetic underpinnings.
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76	76	* Brain and Cranial Size: Numerous studies (using methods from endocranial volume of skulls to MRI scans) have found average differences in brain size and cranial capacity among races. The differences are modest and with much overlap, but on average, East Asians have been found to have the largest brain volumes, followed by Europeans, then Africans, in many studies.{{footnote}}Jared Taylor, "The Biological Reality of Race," *American Renaissance*, October 1999. Available at: [[https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=There%20are%20differences%20in%20hormones%2C,have%20many%20consequences%20for%20society]]{{/footnote}} For example, 19th-20th century physical anthropologists like Gould (reanalysing Morton’s skull measurements) and contemporary researchers like Rushton reported such trends in cranial measurements. These differences persist even when controlling for body size. It must be emphasized that brain size is only one factor among many in cognition (and there is debate about its significance), but the point here is that consistent anatomical differences in brain morphology have been observed. They align with the idea that human populations followed slightly different evolutionary paths, possibly due to climate (larger brains may help in cold climates for thermoregulation) or other selective pressures. Neuroscientist Michael Woodley notes that human groups can even be considered “phylogenetic species” under one definition – meaning the smallest discernible lineage clusters exist below the species level, though all humans remain one biological species in the sense of interbreeding capacity.{{footnote}}Michael A. Woodley, *“Is Homo sapiens polytypic? Human taxonomic diversity and its implications,”* Medical Hypotheses 74: 195–201 (2009). Available at: [[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/26756268_Is_Homo_sapiens_polytypic_Human_taxonomic_diversity_and_its_implications#:~:text=taxonomic%20classification%20is%20considered%20where,the%20level%20of%20biological%20species]]{{/footnote}}
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78	78	* Other Organ Systems: Virtually every organ system shows some racial pattern. For instance, lung capacity tends to be a bit lower (by about 5–10% on average) in African-descended populations compared to Europeans, which has been accounted for in medical guidelines for pulmonary function (this difference may relate to body build and barrel chest shape differences). Kidney function genes like APOL1 variants are found almost exclusively in people of recent African ancestry and confer protection against certain African parasites *but* also higher risk of kidney disease in modern environments. Similarly, alcohol metabolism genes vary: a significant proportion of East Asians carry an allele (*ALDH2* deficiency) that causes alcohol flush reaction and lower alcohol tolerance – a variant rare in Europeans or Africans.{{footnote}}Alcohol flush reaction, Wikipedia. Available at: [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_flush_reaction#:~:text=Alcohol%20flush%20reaction%20,functional%20acetaldehyde%20dehydrogenase%20enzyme%2C]]{{/footnote}} {{footnote}}Alcohol flush reaction, Wikipedia. Available at: [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_flush_reaction#:~:text=Around%2020%E2%80%9330,functional%20acetaldehyde%20dehydrogenase%20enzyme%2C]]{{/footnote}} Conversely, many Europeans have genetic adaptations for digesting starches and alcohol due to long agricultural history. These examples illustrate that human populations evolved unique genetic adaptations to their local environments and diets.
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81	81	== Health and Biomedical Differences ==
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83	83	Biologically real racial differences are particularly evident in health and disease profiles. Certain genetic diseases or medical conditions are far more prevalent in some races than others, underscoring the practical importance of biological race in medicine:
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91	91	* Drug Response and Medical Reactions: Ancestry can influence how patients respond to certain medications. For instance, some heart medications (like ACE inhibitors) are on average *less effective* in black patients than in white patients, leading to the development of BiDil (a heart failure drug combination) that was specifically tested and approved for African-American patients. Another example: the adverse reaction Stevens-Johnson syndrome is associated with a particular HLA allele that is far more common in people of Southeast Asian ancestry – prompting genetic screening for at-risk Asian patients before prescribing certain drugs (like carbamazepine). Additionally, the tolerable doses of drugs metabolized by specific liver enzymes can vary by race, because the frequency of enzyme variants (CYP450 family, etc.) differs. In short, race/ancestry is a useful proxy for certain genetic profiles relevant to healthcare.{{footnote}}Michael A. Woodley, *“Is Homo sapiens polytypic? Human taxonomic diversity and its implications,”* Medical Hypotheses 74: 195–201 (2009). Available at: [[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/26756268_Is_Homo_sapiens_polytypic_Human_taxonomic_diversity_and_its_implications#:~:text=Finally%20the%20implications%20of%20this,save%20lives%20in%20the%20future]]{{/footnote}} The U.S. FDA and medical practitioners increasingly recognize that a patient’s racial or ethnic background can be a valuable piece of information in diagnosis and treatment, precisely because it correlates with underlying genetic factors affecting health.
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94	94	== Disease Susceptibilities ==
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96	96	Different races show differing patterns of disease prevalence. For example, hypertension and type-2 diabetes rates are notably higher in some populations (e.g., African-Americans have higher hypertension prevalence than whites in the U.S.), likely due to a combination of genetic predispositions and environmental factors. Prostate cancer is another example – it has a significantly higher incidence and mortality in men of African descent worldwide compared to other groups, suggesting genetic risk factors play a role. Meanwhile, osteoporosis is more common in people of European and Asian descent and relatively less common in Africans (consistent with the higher bone density in black populations).{{footnote}}American Renaissance, "The Biological Reality of Race," *October 1999.* Available at: [[https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=higher%20mineral%20content,in%20blacks%20than%20in%20whites]]{{/footnote}}{{footnote}}American Renaissance, "The Biological Reality of Race," *October 1999.* Available at: [[https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=Blacks%20have%20more%20lean%20body,years%20sooner%20than%20white%20children]]{{/footnote}} Skin cancers are very rare in darkly pigmented races but common in light-pigmented groups under strong sunlight. Each of these disparities has a biological component tied to race.
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130	130	Some critics argue that human groups haven’t been isolated long enough to speciate or form true subspecies. It’s true humans only began dispersing out of Africa \70k years ago, which is recent in evolutionary terms. But even in that time, significant differentiation has occurred. In fact, researchers have pointed out that *numerous other mammal species* have subspecies that diverged around the same time frame as human races did.{{footnote}}Anonymous, "Race is biologically non-existent — I’m not making it up," *Tumblr Blog*, 2014. Available at: [[https://someofmybestfriendsarewhite.tumblr.com/post/80846397928/race-is-biologically-non-existent-im-not-making#:~:text=Another%20false%20argument%20is%20that,gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1689361]]{{/footnote}} For example, certain baboon species or leopard subspecies separated from each other only tens of thousands of years ago and are recognized as distinct. The relatively short timeline does not preclude meaningful evolutionary change, especially under strong selective pressures (like climate, disease, diet). Human evolution didn’t “stop” in the Paleolithic; it continued in varying directions on each continent. As a result, the concept of human races remains biologically valid in describing that differentiation.
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132		-It’s also worth noting that biological race ≠ racist ideology. Acknowledging biological races does *not* imply any rank or inherent superiority/inferiority; it simply recognizes human adaptive diversity. Many scholars prefer the term “population” or “ancestry group” to avoid the political baggage of “race,” but the underlying idea is the same. Philosopher Neven Sesardić has argued that the biological concept of race (as used by scientists like Dobzhansky mid-20th century) is still sound and has been unfairly misrepresented by social constructionists.{{footnote}}Anonymous, "Race is biologically non-existent — I’m not making it up," *Tumblr Blog*, 2014. Available at: [[https://someofmybestfriendsarewhite.tumblr.com/post/80846397928/race-is-biologically-non-existent-im-not-making#:~:text=,some%20leading%20contemporary%20scholars%20who]]{{/footnote}} Sesardić showed that the oft-cited conceptual criticisms (e.g. “races aren’t discrete,” “no trait is unique to a race”) do not actually invalidate the biological race concept properly understood.{{footnote}}Anonymous, "Race is biologically non-existent — I’m not making it up," *Tumblr Blog*, 2014. Available at: [[https://someofmybestfriendsarewhite.tumblr.com/post/80846397928/race-is-biologically-non-existent-im-not-making#:~:text=,some%20leading%20contemporary%20scholars%20who]]{{/footnote}} In fact, when one looks at what current genetic research says, it vindicates the notion that self-identified race corresponds to real patterns of genetic ancestry and variation, even though race has social dimensions too.{{footnote}}Anonymous, "Race is biologically non-existent — I’m not making it up," *Tumblr Blog*, 2014. Available at: [[https://someofmybestfriendsarewhite.tumblr.com/post/80846397928/race-is-biologically-non-existent-im-not-making#:~:text=,some%20leading%20contemporary%20scholars%20who]]{{/footnote}}{{footnote}}Jerry Coyne, "Once again: are races social constructs without scientific or biological meaning?" *Why Evolution Is True*, July 19, 2022. Available at: [[https://whyevolutionistrue.com/2022/07/19/once-again-are-races-social-constructs-without-scientific-or-biological-meaning/#:~:text=This%20in%20turn%20means%20that,discussed%20in%20an%20earlier%20post]]{{/footnote}}
	129	+It’s also worth noting that biological race ≠ racist ideology. Acknowledging biological races does *not* imply any rank or inherent superiority/inferiority; it simply recognizes human adaptive diversity. Many scholars prefer the term “population” or “ancestry group” to avoid the political baggage of “race,” but the underlying idea is the same. Philosopher Neven Sesardić has argued that the biological concept of race (as used by scientists like Dobzhansky mid-20th century) is still sound and has been unfairly misrepresented by social constructionists.{{footnote}}Sesardić, Neven. *“Race: A Social Destruction of a Biological Concept.”* Biology & Philosophy 25(2): 143–162 (2010) – (Defends the biological race concept against constructivist critiques; notes Lewontin’s fallacy and modern genetic evidence). Available at https://philarchive.org/rec/SESRAS{{/footnote}} Sesardić showed that the oft-cited conceptual criticisms (e.g. “races aren’t discrete,” “no trait is unique to a race”) do not actually invalidate the biological race concept properly understood.{{footnote}}Anonymous, "Race is biologically non-existent — I’m not making it up," *Tumblr Blog*, 2014. Available at: [[https://someofmybestfriendsarewhite.tumblr.com/post/80846397928/race-is-biologically-non-existent-im-not-making#:~:text=,some%20leading%20contemporary%20scholars%20who]]{{/footnote}} In fact, when one looks at what current genetic research says, it vindicates the notion that self-identified race corresponds to real patterns of genetic ancestry and variation, even though race has social dimensions too.{{footnote}}Anonymous, "Race is biologically non-existent — I’m not making it up," *Tumblr Blog*, 2014. Available at: [[https://someofmybestfriendsarewhite.tumblr.com/post/80846397928/race-is-biologically-non-existent-im-not-making#:~:text=,some%20leading%20contemporary%20scholars%20who]]{{/footnote}}{{footnote}}Jerry Coyne, "Once again: are races social constructs without scientific or biological meaning?" *Why Evolution Is True*, July 19, 2022. Available at: [[https://whyevolutionistrue.com/2022/07/19/once-again-are-races-social-constructs-without-scientific-or-biological-meaning/#:~:text=This%20in%20turn%20means%20that,discussed%20in%20an%20earlier%20post]]{{/footnote}}
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135	135	== Conclusion ==