Changes for page The Existence of Race

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44	44	Beyond genetics, human races manifest observable physical differences that go far deeper than skin color. The most obvious is pigmentation (populations from sunny tropical latitudes evolved darker skin, while those from higher latitudes evolved lighter skin to synthesize vitamin D), but many other evolved traits distinguish human groups. Anthropologists and biologists have documented racial differences in body proportions, skeletal morphology, facial features, hair texture, metabolism, and other physiological traits, often as adaptations to different environments.
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46		-Skeletal Structure: Skulls and skeletal measurements vary sufficiently by ancestry that forensic anthropologists can often determine a person’s race or ancestry from skeletal remains with high accuracy. In actual forensic case studies, anthropologists correctly estimated ancestry ~~91% of the time using skeletal evidence.{{footnote}} https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28133721/#:~:text=skeletons%20of%20individuals%20from%20known,recent%20cases%20showed%20a%20significantly{{/footnote}} Under research conditions, using detailed craniometric measurements, accuracy rates between 81% and 99% have been reported for identifying an individual’s race from the skull.{{footnote}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craniometry#:~:text=A%20few%20studies%20claim%20that,99%25%20accuracy%20depending{{/footnote}} These successes are possible only because cranial shape and dimensions differ by population – for instance, features of the eye orbits, jaw, nasal aperture, etc., exhibit patterns characteristic of Africans, Europeans, East Asians, and so on. The existence of such consistent skeletal differences (so much so that “race” can be diagnosed from a skull) underscores that race has biological reality.{{footnote}} https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28133721/#:~:text=skeletons%20of%20individuals%20from%20known,recent%20cases%20showed%20a%20significantly{{/footnote}}
	46	+Skeletal Structure: Skulls and skeletal measurements vary sufficiently by ancestry that forensic anthropologists can often determine a person’s race or ancestry from skeletal remains with high accuracy. In actual forensic case studies, anthropologists correctly estimated ancestry ~~91% of the time using skeletal evidence.{{footnote}} https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28133721/#:~:text=skeletons%20of%20individuals%20from%20known,recent%20cases%20showed%20a%20significantly{{/footnote}} Under research conditions, using detailed craniometric measurements, accuracy rates between 81% and 99% have been reported for identifying an individual’s race from the skull.{{footnote}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craniometry#:~:text=A%20few%20studies%20claim%20that,99%25%20accuracy%20depending{{/footnote}} These successes are possible only because cranial shape and dimensions differ by population – for instance, features of the eye orbits, jaw, nasal aperture, etc., exhibit patterns characteristic of Africans, Europeans, East Asians, and so on. The existence of such consistent skeletal differences (so much so that “race” can be diagnosed from a skull) underscores that race has biological reality./foot
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48		-Specific skeletal and body-form differences follow ecogeographical rules. Populations from cold climates tend to have bulkier bodies and shorter limbs, conserving heat (an instance of Bergmann’s rule and Allen’s rule), whereas those from hot climates are more long-limbed and slender to dissipate heat. For example, within Africa, Nilotic peoples (such as the Dinka and Maasai of East Africa) are renowned for being extremely tall and lean – adult males often exceed 6 feet, with elongated limb proportions.{{footnote}} https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=The%20Elongates%2C%20on%20the%20other,modern%20American%20game%20of%20basketball{{/footnote}} This “elongated” physique is thought to be an adaptation for survival in hot, arid environments. In contrast, Arctic indigenous groups (like Inuit) tend to have stockier, compact bodies presumably adapted to cold stress (shorter limbs, more body fat insulation), though these groups were not mentioned in our sources. Even within more temperate regions, historical European races were differentiated by stature and build – e.g. the Nordic race was characterized as tall and long-legged, whereas the Alpine and Dinaric races of central Europe were more stocky on average.{{footnote}} https://archive.org/stream/racialelementsof035485mbp/racialelementsof035485mbp_djvu.txt#:~:text=one%20or%20the%20other%20race,over%20the%20nape%20of%20the{{/footnote}}
	48	+Specific skeletal and body-form differences follow ecogeographical rules. Populations from cold climates tend to have bulkier bodies and shorter limbs, conserving heat (an instance of Bergmann’s rule and Allen’s rule), whereas those from hot climates are more long-limbed and slender to dissipate heat. For example, within Africa, Nilotic peoples (such as the Dinka and Maasai of East Africa) are renowned for being extremely tall and lean – adult males often exceed 6 feet, with elongated limb proportions. This “elongated” physique is thought to be an adaptation for survival in hot, arid environments. In contrast, Arctic indigenous groups (like Inuit) tend to have stockier, compact bodies presumably adapted to cold stress (shorter limbs, more body fat insulation), though these groups were not mentioned in our sources. Even within more temperate regions, historical European races were differentiated by stature and build – e.g. the Nordic race was characterized as tall and long-legged, whereas the Alpine and Dinaric races of central Europe were more stocky on average.
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50		-Facial and Cranial Features: Classic racial anthropology noted differences in head shape (cranial index), facial width, nasal form, etc. Africans on average have more prognathic (forward-projecting) jaws, whereas Europeans tend to have straighter profiles, and East Asians have distinctive flatter facial bone structure. Nose shape varies clinally: narrow noses are more common in dry or cold climates (to humidify and warm air), while broad noses are more common in humid tropical climates./foot Eye shape is another differentiator – the epicanthic fold of East Asian populations (and some others) is a familiar trait, though its adaptive significance is debated (it might protect the eyes from cold or glare). Hair form ranges from tightly coiled Afro-textured hair (adapted perhaps to dissipate heat from the scalp) to straight, thick East Asian hair (which retains heat and may have evolved for cold climates), with Europeans often intermediate (wavy or curly hair). These traits *bundle together* in populations due to shared ancestry and evolution, giving each race a recognizable phenotypic profile.
	50	+Facial and Cranial Features: Classic racial anthropology noted differences in head shape (cranial index), facial width, nasal form, etc. Africans on average have more prognathic (forward-projecting) jaws, whereas Europeans tend to have straighter profiles, and East Asians have distinctive flatter facial bone structure. Nose shape varies clinally: narrow noses are more common in dry or cold climates (to humidify and warm air), while broad noses are more common in humid tropical climates. Eye shape is another differentiator – the epicanthic fold of East Asian populations (and some others) is a familiar trait, though its adaptive significance is debated (it might protect the eyes from cold or glare). Hair form ranges from tightly coiled Afro-textured hair (adapted perhaps to dissipate heat from the scalp) to straight, thick East Asian hair (which retains heat and may have evolved for cold climates), with Europeans often intermediate (wavy or curly hair). These traits *bundle together* in populations due to shared ancestry and evolution, giving each race a recognizable phenotypic profile.
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52	52	As one historical example, Hans F.K. Günther described how even a “casual onlooker” could distinguish the predominant races in Europe by a combination of features: *“North-west Europe, especially Scandinavia, shows...tall, fair, narrow-faced men and women, with long heads... The Austrian Alps show\...a definite type described as the Dinaric race \[broad-headed, high-cheekboned]... Spain and southern Italy…\[are] settled by a relatively homogeneous \[Mediterranean] population,”* and so on. Such “ocular proof” of racial phenotype continues to be evident in modern populations, albeit mixed to varying degrees.
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