Changes for page The Existence of Race

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38	38	Moreover, the level of between-group genetic differentiation humans *do* have (about 10–15% variation partitioned between races) is not biologically trivial. In population genetics, a statistic called F<sub>ST</sub> measures the genetic differentiation among populations. Humans’ inter-group F<sub>ST</sub> values (on the order of 0.1–0.2 between continental groups) are comparable to or greater than those seen between subspecies in many other animals. In fact, one analysis showed humans have *higher* genetic differentiation and heterozygosity than some species that are formally divided into multiple subspecies. For example, many mammal and bird species are split into subspecies for far smaller genetic gaps. Thus, by zoological criteria, it is reasonable to view major human populations as akin to subspecies.{{footnote}} https://someofmybestfriendsarewhite.tumblr.com/post/80846397928/race-is-biologically-non-existent-im-not-making#:~:text=of%20the%20framework%20of%20race,of%20potential%20human%20phylogenetic%20species{{/footnote}}
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40		-In sum, genetic evidence strongly supports the existence of biological racial groupings. Humans are a diverse, polytypic species – not in the sense of completely discrete, non-interbreeding groups (human races grade into each other and have fuzzy boundaries), but in the sense of statistical clusters of both genes and traits. These genetic clusters are real enough that they can be used predictively (e.g. for biomedical purposes or forensically) and reflect deep evolutionary history./foot
	40	+In sum, genetic evidence strongly supports the existence of biological racial groupings. Humans are a diverse, polytypic species – not in the sense of completely discrete, non-interbreeding groups (human races grade into each other and have fuzzy boundaries), but in the sense of statistical clusters of both genes and traits. These genetic clusters are real enough that they can be used predictively (e.g. for biomedical purposes or forensically) and reflect deep evolutionary history.{{footnote}} https://whyevolutionistrue.com/2022/07/19/once-again-are-races-social-constructs-without-scientific-or-biological-meaning/#:~:text=The%20meaning%20of%20the%20biological,evolutionary%20origin%20of%20group%20members{{/footnote}}
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42	42	## Morphological and Physical Differences Among Races##
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44	44	Beyond genetics, human races manifest observable physical differences that go far deeper than skin color. The most obvious is pigmentation (populations from sunny tropical latitudes evolved darker skin, while those from higher latitudes evolved lighter skin to synthesize vitamin D), but many other evolved traits distinguish human groups. Anthropologists and biologists have documented racial differences in body proportions, skeletal morphology, facial features, hair texture, metabolism, and other physiological traits, often as adaptations to different environments.
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46		-Skeletal Structure: Skulls and skeletal measurements vary sufficiently by ancestry that forensic anthropologists can often determine a person’s race or ancestry from skeletal remains with high accuracy. In actual forensic case studies, anthropologists correctly estimated ancestry \91% of the time using skeletal evidence. Under research conditions, using detailed craniometric measurements, accuracy rates between 81% and 99% have been reported for identifying an individual’s race from the skull. These successes are possible only because cranial shape and dimensions differ by population – for instance, features of the eye orbits, jaw, nasal aperture, etc., exhibit patterns characteristic of Africans, Europeans, East Asians, and so on. The existence of such consistent skeletal differences (so much so that “race” can be diagnosed from a skull) underscores that race has biological reality.
	46	+Skeletal Structure: Skulls and skeletal measurements vary sufficiently by ancestry that forensic anthropologists can often determine a person’s race or ancestry from skeletal remains with high accuracy. In actual forensic case studies, anthropologists correctly estimated ancestry ~~91% of the time using skeletal evidence.{{footnote}} https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28133721/#:~:text=skeletons%20of%20individuals%20from%20known,recent%20cases%20showed%20a%20significantly{{/footnote}} Under research conditions, using detailed craniometric measurements, accuracy rates between 81% and 99% have been reported for identifying an individual’s race from the skull.{{footnote}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craniometry#:~:text=A%20few%20studies%20claim%20that,99%25%20accuracy%20depending{{/footnote}} These successes are possible only because cranial shape and dimensions differ by population – for instance, features of the eye orbits, jaw, nasal aperture, etc., exhibit patterns characteristic of Africans, Europeans, East Asians, and so on. The existence of such consistent skeletal differences (so much so that “race” can be diagnosed from a skull) underscores that race has biological reality.{{footnote}} https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28133721/#:~:text=skeletons%20of%20individuals%20from%20known,recent%20cases%20showed%20a%20significantly{{/footnote}}
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48		-Specific skeletal and body-form differences follow ecogeographical rules. Populations from cold climates tend to have bulkier bodies and shorter limbs, conserving heat (an instance of Bergmann’s rule and Allen’s rule), whereas those from hot climates are more long-limbed and slender to dissipate heat. For example, within Africa, Nilotic peoples (such as the Dinka and Maasai of East Africa) are renowned for being extremely tall and lean – adult males often exceed 6 feet, with elongated limb proportions. This “elongated” physique is thought to be an adaptation for survival in hot, arid environments. In contrast, Arctic indigenous groups (like Inuit) tend to have stockier, compact bodies presumably adapted to cold stress (shorter limbs, more body fat insulation), though these groups were not mentioned in our sources. Even within more temperate regions, historical European races were differentiated by stature and build – e.g. the Nordic race was characterized as tall and long-legged, whereas the Alpine and Dinaric races of central Europe were more stocky on average.
	48	+Specific skeletal and body-form differences follow ecogeographical rules. Populations from cold climates tend to have bulkier bodies and shorter limbs, conserving heat (an instance of Bergmann’s rule and Allen’s rule), whereas those from hot climates are more long-limbed and slender to dissipate heat. For example, within Africa, Nilotic peoples (such as the Dinka and Maasai of East Africa) are renowned for being extremely tall and lean – adult males often exceed 6 feet, with elongated limb proportions.{{footnote}} https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=The%20Elongates%2C%20on%20the%20other,modern%20American%20game%20of%20basketball{{/footnote}} This “elongated” physique is thought to be an adaptation for survival in hot, arid environments. In contrast, Arctic indigenous groups (like Inuit) tend to have stockier, compact bodies presumably adapted to cold stress (shorter limbs, more body fat insulation), though these groups were not mentioned in our sources. Even within more temperate regions, historical European races were differentiated by stature and build – e.g. the Nordic race was characterized as tall and long-legged, whereas the Alpine and Dinaric races of central Europe were more stocky on average.{{footnote}} https://archive.org/stream/racialelementsof035485mbp/racialelementsof035485mbp_djvu.txt#:~:text=one%20or%20the%20other%20race,over%20the%20nape%20of%20the{{/footnote}}
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50		-Facial and Cranial Features: Classic racial anthropology noted differences in head shape (cranial index), facial width, nasal form, etc. Africans on average have more prognathic (forward-projecting) jaws, whereas Europeans tend to have straighter profiles, and East Asians have distinctive flatter facial bone structure. Nose shape varies clinally: narrow noses are more common in dry or cold climates (to humidify and warm air), while broad noses are more common in humid tropical climates. Eye shape is another differentiator – the epicanthic fold of East Asian populations (and some others) is a familiar trait, though its adaptive significance is debated (it might protect the eyes from cold or glare). Hair form ranges from tightly coiled Afro-textured hair (adapted perhaps to dissipate heat from the scalp) to straight, thick East Asian hair (which retains heat and may have evolved for cold climates), with Europeans often intermediate (wavy or curly hair). These traits *bundle together* in populations due to shared ancestry and evolution, giving each race a recognizable phenotypic profile.
	50	+Facial and Cranial Features: Classic racial anthropology noted differences in head shape (cranial index), facial width, nasal form, etc. Africans on average have more prognathic (forward-projecting) jaws, whereas Europeans tend to have straighter profiles, and East Asians have distinctive flatter facial bone structure. Nose shape varies clinally: narrow noses are more common in dry or cold climates (to humidify and warm air), while broad noses are more common in humid tropical climates.{{footnote}} https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=In%20many%20characteristics%20Hottentots%20are,fat%20storage%20strategies%20are%20biological{{/footnote}} Eye shape is another differentiator – the epicanthic fold of East Asian populations (and some others) is a familiar trait, though its adaptive significance is debated (it might protect the eyes from cold or glare). Hair form ranges from tightly coiled Afro-textured hair (adapted perhaps to dissipate heat from the scalp) to straight, thick East Asian hair (which retains heat and may have evolved for cold climates), with Europeans often intermediate (wavy or curly hair). These traits *bundle together* in populations due to shared ancestry and evolution, giving each race a recognizable phenotypic profile.
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52		-As one historical example, Hans F.K. Günther described how even a “casual onlooker” could distinguish the predominant races in Europe by a combination of features: *“North-west Europe, especially Scandinavia, shows...tall, fair, narrow-faced men and women, with long heads... The Austrian Alps show\...a definite type described as the Dinaric race \[broad-headed, high-cheekboned]... Spain and southern Italy…\[are] settled by a relatively homogeneous \[Mediterranean] population,”* and so on. Such “ocular proof” of racial phenotype continues to be evident in modern populations, albeit mixed to varying degrees.
	52	+As one historical example, Hans F.K. Günther described how even a “casual onlooker” could distinguish the predominant races in Europe by a combination of features: *“North-west Europe, especially Scandinavia, shows...tall, fair, narrow-faced men and women, with long heads... The Austrian Alps show\...a definite type described as the Dinaric race \[broad-headed, high-cheekboned]... Spain and southern Italy…\[are] settled by a relatively homogeneous \[Mediterranean] population,”{{footnote}} https://archive.org/stream/racialelementsof035485mbp/racialelementsof035485mbp_djvu.txt#:~:text=one%20or%20the%20other%20race,over%20the%20nape%20of%20the{{/footnote}} and so on. Such “ocular proof” of racial phenotype continues to be evident in modern populations, albeit mixed to varying degrees.
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54	54	Body Composition and Physiology: Racial differences extend to body composition (muscle, bone, and fat distribution) and other physiological parameters:
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56		-* Bone Density: Studies consistently find that black populations have higher bone density and bone mineral content than whites, both from early infancy and throughout life. This leads to a lower incidence of osteoporosis and fragility fractures among elderly black Americans compared to whites. For example, one report notes that even *before birth*, black fetuses have measurably denser bones on average, and this carries into adulthood. Denser, stronger bones in Africans may be an adaptation to high physical activity or other evolutionary pressures, and have clear health implications (affecting calcium metabolism, fracture risk, etc.).
	56	+* Bone Density: Studies consistently find that black populations have higher bone density and bone mineral content than whites, both from early infancy and throughout life. This leads to a lower incidence of osteoporosis and fragility fractures among elderly black Americans compared to whites. For example, one report notes that even *before birth*, black fetuses have measurably denser bones on average, and this carries into adulthood. Denser, stronger bones in Africans may be an adaptation to high physical activity or other evolutionary pressures, and have clear health implications (affecting calcium metabolism, fracture risk, etc.).{{footnote}} https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=and%20smaller%2C%20but%20they%20mature,in%20blacks%20than%20in%20whites{{/footnote}}
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58		-* Fat Distribution: Different populations store fat differently, likely reflecting climate adaptations. A striking example is steatopygia among the Khoisan (Khoi and San “Bushmen”) of southern Africa – females historically accumulated pronounced fat deposits in the buttocks. This trait is thought to be an adaptation for energy storage in a region with seasonal food scarcity, while still allowing efficient heat loss (since the rest of the body remains lean). It’s been analogized to a camel’s hump in humans. In contrast, northern Eurasian populations (e.g. Europeans) tend to put on fat more uniformly under the skin (subcutaneous fat) throughout the body. This yields better insulation against cold climates, albeit at the cost of overheating more easily in hot weather. Such differences in fat storage are “biological realities of race” tied to ancestral climate.
	58	+* Fat Distribution: Different populations store fat differently, likely reflecting climate adaptations. A striking example is steatopygia among the Khoisan (Khoi and San “Bushmen”) of southern Africa – females historically accumulated pronounced fat deposits in the buttocks. This trait is thought to be an adaptation for energy storage in a region with seasonal food scarcity, while still allowing efficient heat loss (since the rest of the body remains lean). It’s been analogized to a camel’s hump in humans. In contrast, northern Eurasian populations (e.g. Europeans) tend to put on fat more uniformly under the skin (subcutaneous fat) throughout the body. This yields better insulation against cold climates, albeit at the cost of overheating more easily in hot weather. Such differences in fat storage are “biological realities of race” tied to ancestral climate.{{footnote}} https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=In%20many%20characteristics%20Hottentots%20are,fat%20storage%20strategies%20are%20biological{{/footnote}}
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60		-* Metabolism: Metabolic rate differences have been documented. For instance, black American women have, on average, a lower resting metabolic rate than white American women. A lower metabolic rate conserves energy and generates less internal heat – advantageous in a hot environment – but in modern sedentary societies with abundant food, this may predispose to higher rates of obesity. Such racial metabolic differences likely result from natural selection in different climates (thermal regulation needs) and diets.
	60	+* Metabolism: Metabolic rate differences have been documented. For instance, black American women have, on average, a lower resting metabolic rate than white American women. A lower metabolic rate conserves energy and generates less internal heat – advantageous in a hot environment – but in modern sedentary societies with abundant food, this may predispose to higher rates of obesity. Such racial metabolic differences likely result from natural selection in different climates (thermal regulation needs) and diets.{{footnote}} https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=A%20related%20biological%20reality%20is,more%20likely%20to%20become%20obese{{/footnote}}
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62		-* Muscle and Athletics: There are well-known racial patterns in athletic performance that align with genetic ancestry. East African runners (particularly the Kalenjin tribe of Kenya and related groups in highland Kenya/Ethiopia) dominate world long-distance running, whereas West African-descended athletes excel in sprinting and explosive track events. For example, about 40% of top world-class middle- and long-distance runners have come from the Kalenjin (a Nilotic people who comprise only \10% of Kenya’s population). Their success is often attributed to a mix of genetic, physiological, and cultural factors – including slim body morphology, high-altitude training environment, and perhaps evolutionary history of endurance activities. In sprinting, virtually all Olympic 100m finalists for decades have been of West African descent, reflecting genetic predispositions for muscle fiber type and anaerobic power. While social factors play a role in sports, these patterns strongly suggest underlying biological differences in musculature and physiology between populations. Indeed, even within Africa, the contrast of body types is evident: “Elongated” Nilotic Africans (e.g. Kalenjin, Dinka) are exceptionally tall and tend toward endurance, whereas many West African groups have comparatively more musculature and power suited to sprinting and jumping. Such differences illustrate how human populations have specialized via evolution.
	62	+* Muscle and Athletics: There are well-known racial patterns in athletic performance that align with genetic ancestry. East African runners (particularly the Kalenjin tribe of Kenya and related groups in highland Kenya/Ethiopia) dominate world long-distance running, whereas West African-descended athletes excel in sprinting and explosive track events. For example, about 40% of top world-class middle- and long-distance runners have come from the Kalenjin (a Nilotic people who comprise only \10% of Kenya’s population).{{footnote}} https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=ancestors%20have%20been%20tending%20cattle,from%20just%20this%20one%20tribe{{/footnote}} Their success is often attributed to a mix of genetic, physiological, and cultural factors – including slim body morphology, high-altitude training environment, and perhaps evolutionary history of endurance activities.{{footnote}} https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=ancestors%20have%20been%20tending%20cattle,from%20just%20this%20one%20tribe{{/footnote}} In sprinting, virtually all Olympic 100m finalists for decades have been of West African descent, reflecting genetic predispositions for muscle fiber type and anaerobic power. While social factors play a role in sports, these patterns strongly suggest underlying biological differences in musculature and physiology between populations. Indeed, even within Africa, the contrast of body types is evident: “Elongated” Nilotic Africans (e.g. Kalenjin, Dinka) are exceptionally tall and tend toward endurance, whereas many West African groups have comparatively more musculature and power suited to sprinting and jumping. Such differences illustrate how human populations have specialized via evolution.
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64		-* Growth and Development: Racial groups differ in rates of growth and maturation. On average, African-descended infants and children develop faster on some motor and physical milestones than European-descended ones. For example, black babies in the U.S. are often born slightly earlier (shorter gestation) and at slightly lower birth weights than white babies, yet they mature more rapidly postnatally. Studies (and anecdotal observations) have found that black infants tend to hold their heads up, sit, crawl, and walk a bit earlier than white infants of the same age – a pattern also reported in some African populations. One extreme case is the Efe pygmies, among whom babies have been observed to walk as early as 6 months, roughly twice as fast as the typical European infant timeline (12 months). Black children also enter puberty earlier, on average, than whites: in the U.S., African-American girls begin breast development and menstruation about 1–2 years earlier than European-American girls, and similarly boys show earlier genital development. By around age 12, many black youths are biologically more mature (in bone growth and muscle mass) than their white peers. East Asians, in contrast, tend to be slightly later in maturation than Europeans (on average), continuing the pattern of an observed gradient: fast development at one end (Africans) and slowest at the other (East Asians), with Europeans intermediate – a pattern noted by J.P. Rushton and others as part of broader life-history differences. These developmental timing differences have practical implications (for instance, in youth athletics or education) and likely genetic underpinnings.
	64	+* Growth and Development: Racial groups differ in rates of growth and maturation. On average, African-descended infants and children develop faster on some motor and physical milestones than European-descended ones. For example, black babies in the U.S. are often born slightly earlier (shorter gestation) and at slightly lower birth weights than white babies, yet they mature more rapidly postnatally.{{footnote}} https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=Many%20of%20these%20race%20differences,in%20blacks%20than%20in%20whites{{/footnote}} Studies (and anecdotal observations) have found that black infants tend to hold their heads up, sit, crawl, and walk a bit earlier than white infants of the same age – a pattern also reported in some African populations.{{footnote}} https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=Many%20of%20these%20race%20differences,in%20blacks%20than%20in%20whites{{/footnote}} One extreme case is the Efe pygmies, among whom babies have been observed to walk as early as 6 months, roughly twice as fast as the typical European infant timeline (12 months).{{footnote}} https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=On%20the%20subject%20of%20size%2C,quickly%20than%20any%20human%20group{{/footnote}} Black children also enter puberty earlier, on average, than whites: in the U.S., African-American girls begin breast development and menstruation about 1–2 years earlier than European-American girls, and similarly boys show earlier genital development.{{footnote}} {{/footnote}} By around age 12, many black youths are biologically more mature (in bone growth and muscle mass) than their white peers. East Asians, in contrast, tend to be slightly later in maturation than Europeans (on average), continuing the pattern of an observed gradient: fast development at one end (Africans) and slowest at the other (East Asians), with Europeans intermediate – a pattern noted by J.P. Rushton and others as part of broader life-history differences. These developmental timing differences have practical implications (for instance, in youth athletics or education) and likely genetic underpinnings.
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66	66	* Brain and Cranial Size: Numerous studies (using methods from endocranial volume of skulls to MRI scans) have found average differences in brain size and cranial capacity among races. The differences are modest and with much overlap, but on average, East Asians have been found to have the largest brain volumes, followed by Europeans, then Africans, in many studies. For example, 19th-20th century physical anthropologists like Gould (reanalysing Morton’s skull measurements) and contemporary researchers like Rushton reported such trends in cranial measurements. These differences persist even when controlling for body size. It must be emphasized that brain size is only one factor among many in cognition (and there is debate about its significance), but the point here is that consistent anatomical differences in brain morphology have been observed. They align with the idea that human populations followed slightly different evolutionary paths, possibly due to climate (larger brains may help in cold climates for thermoregulation) or other selective pressures. Neuroscientist Michael Woodley notes that human groups can even be considered “phylogenetic species” under one definition – meaning the smallest discernible lineage clusters exist below the species level, though all humans remain one biological species in the sense of interbreeding capacity.
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