Changes for page The Existence of Race

Summary

• Page properties (1 modified, 0 added, 0 removed)

Details

Page properties

Content

...	...	@@ -65,13 +65,13 @@
65	65
66	66	* Brain and Cranial Size: Numerous studies (using methods from endocranial volume of skulls to MRI scans) have found average differences in brain size and cranial capacity among races. The differences are modest and with much overlap, but on average, East Asians have been found to have the largest brain volumes, followed by Europeans, then Africans, in many studies.{{footnote}} https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=There%20are%20differences%20in%20hormones%2C,have%20many%20consequences%20for%20society{{/footnote}} For example, 19th-20th century physical anthropologists like Gould (reanalysing Morton’s skull measurements) and contemporary researchers like Rushton reported such trends in cranial measurements. These differences persist even when controlling for body size. It must be emphasized that brain size is only one factor among many in cognition (and there is debate about its significance), but the point here is that consistent anatomical differences in brain morphology have been observed. They align with the idea that human populations followed slightly different evolutionary paths, possibly due to climate (larger brains may help in cold climates for thermoregulation) or other selective pressures. Neuroscientist Michael Woodley notes that human groups can even be considered “phylogenetic species” under one definition – meaning the smallest discernible lineage clusters exist below the species level, though all humans remain one biological species in the sense of interbreeding capacity.{{footnote}} https://www.researchgate.net/publication/26756268_Is_Homo_sapiens_polytypic_Human_taxonomic_diversity_and_its_implications#:~:text=taxonomic%20classification%20is%20considered%20where,the%20level%20of%20biological%20species{{/footnote}}
67	67
68		-* Other Organ Systems: Virtually every organ system shows some racial pattern. For instance, lung capacity tends to be a bit lower (by about 5–10% on average) in African-descended populations compared to Europeans, which has been accounted for in medical guidelines for pulmonary function (this difference may relate to body build and barrel chest shape differences). Kidney function genes like APOL1 variants are found almost exclusively in people of recent African ancestry and confer protection against certain African parasites *but* also higher risk of kidney disease in modern environments. Similarly, alcohol metabolism genes vary: a significant proportion of East Asians carry an allele (*ALDH2* deficiency) that causes alcohol flush reaction and lower alcohol tolerance – a variant rare in Europeans or Africans.{{footnote}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_flush_reaction#:~:text=Alcohol%20flush%20reaction%20,functional%20acetaldehyde%20dehydrogenase%20enzyme%2C{{/footnote}} {{footnote}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_flush_reaction#:~:text=Around%2020%E2%80%9330,functional%20acetaldehyde%20dehydrogenase%20enzyme%2C{{/footnote}} Conversely, many Europeans have genetic adaptations for digesting starches and alcohol due to long agricultural history. These examples illustrate that human populations evolved unique genetic adaptations to their local environments and diets.
	68	+* Other Organ Systems: Virtually every organ system shows some racial pattern. For instance, lung capacity tends to be a bit lower (by about 5–10% on average) in African-descended populations compared to Europeans, which has been accounted for in medical guidelines for pulmonary function (this difference may relate to body build and barrel chest shape differences). Kidney function genes like APOL1 variants are found almost exclusively in people of recent African ancestry and confer protection against certain African parasites *but* also higher risk of kidney disease in modern environments. Similarly, alcohol metabolism genes vary: a significant proportion of East Asians carry an allele (*ALDH2* deficiency) that causes alcohol flush reaction and lower alcohol tolerance – a variant rare in Europeans or Africans./foot Conversely, many Europeans have genetic adaptations for digesting starches and alcohol due to long agricultural history. These examples illustrate that human populations evolved unique genetic adaptations to their local environments and diets.
69	69
70	70	## Health and Biomedical Differences##
71	71
72	72	Biologically real racial differences are particularly evident in health and disease profiles. Certain genetic diseases or medical conditions are far more prevalent in some races than others, underscoring the practical importance of biological race in medicine:
73	73
74		-* Blood Groups and Transfusions: Blood type frequencies vary by ethnicity, and *some rare blood antigens are found only in specific racial groups*. According to the American Red Cross, *“there are more than 600 known antigens, and some are unique to specific racial and ethnic groups.”{{footnote}} https://www.redcrossblood.org/donate-blood/blood-types/diversity/african-american-blood-donors.html#:~:text=,patient%20with%20sickle%20cell%20disease{{/footnote}} For patients with conditions like sickle cell disease who need frequent transfusions, finding a compatible blood match often requires a donor of the same racial background./foot For example, U-negative blood (a rare type) is found almost exclusively in people of African descent. The Red Cross and other blood services therefore emphasize the need for racially diverse blood donors so that all patients can find well-matched units. This is a clear-cut case where race is literally a factor in saving lives – a purely social construct would not correlate with immunohematology, but in reality, one’s ancestry (race) predicts one’s blood antigen profile.
	74	+* Blood Groups and Transfusions: Blood type frequencies vary by ethnicity, and *some rare blood antigens are found only in specific racial groups*. According to the American Red Cross, *“there are more than 600 known antigens, and some are unique to specific racial and ethnic groups.”* For patients with conditions like sickle cell disease who need frequent transfusions, finding a compatible blood match often requires a donor of the same racial background. For example, U-negative blood (a rare type) is found almost exclusively in people of African descent. The Red Cross and other blood services therefore emphasize the need for racially diverse blood donors so that all patients can find well-matched units. This is a clear-cut case where race is literally a factor in saving lives – a purely social construct would not correlate with immunohematology, but in reality, one’s ancestry (race) predicts one’s blood antigen profile.
75	75
76	76	* Sickle Cell Disease & Malaria Adaptation: *Sickle cell anemia* is often cited in discussions of race and genetics. This serious genetic blood disorder is most common in those of African descent (also in parts of the Middle East and India). In the U.S., over 100,000 individuals (mostly African-Americans) have sickle cell disease. The reason is evolutionary: the sickle-cell mutation provides resistance to malaria, a disease historically endemic in Africa. Carriers of one sickle allele are less likely to die from malaria (an adaptive advantage in malarial regions), but inheriting two copies causes anemia. Thus, the high frequency of the sickle cell gene in Africans (and some South Asians) is a result of natural selection – a genetic adaptation to the environment. This example shows race-linked genetic traits can have functional consequences. Other malaria-protective genetic variants (like G6PD deficiency and thalassemias) are prevalent in Mediterranean, African, or Southeast Asian racial groups, but rare in those from non-malarial regions, illustrating how different populations evolved different solutions to the same problem (malaria).
77	77